Underhand cut-and-fill mining has allowed for the safe extraction of ore in many mines operating in weak rock or highly stressed, rockburst-prone ground conditions. However, the design of safe backfill undercuts is typically based on historical experience at mine operations and on the strength requirements derived from analytical beam equations. In situ measurements in backfill are not commonplace, largely due to challenges associated with instrumenting harsh mining environments. In deep, narrow-vein mines, large deformations and induced stresses fracture the cemented fill, often damaging the instruments and preventing long-term measurements. Hecla Mining Company and the Spokane Mining Research Division of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) have worked collaboratively for several years to better quantify the geomechanics of cemented paste backfill (CPB), thereby improving safety in underhand stopes. A significant focus of this work has been an extensive in situ backfill instrumentation program to monitor long-term stope closure and induced backfill stress. Rugged and durable custom-designed closure meters were developed, allowing measurements to be taken for up to five successive undercuts and measuring closures of more than 50 cm and horizontal fill pressures up to 5.5 MPa. These large stope closures require the stress–strain response of the fill to be considered in design, rather than to rely solely on traditional methods of backfill span design based on intact fill strength. Furthermore, long-term instrument response shows a change in behavior after 13–14% strain, indicating a transition from shear yielding of the intact, cemented material to compaction of the porosity between sand grains, typical of uncemented sand fills. This strain-hardening behavior is important for mine design purposes, particularly for the use of numerical models to simulate regional rock support and stress redistribution. These quantitative measurements help justify long-standing assumptions regarding the role of backfill in ground support and will be useful for other mines operating under similar conditions.

In 2001, researchers from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) installed instruments at the Turquoise Ridge Mine in cooperation with Placer Dome, Inc. to monitor the geomechanical behavior and stability of a cemented rockfill (CRF) sill and the surrounding host rock during test mining of a large undercut span beneath backfill. Six parallel, adjacent drifts were mined and backfilled to construct a CRF sill, approximately 22.9 m (75 ft) wide by 30.5 m (100 ft) long. The sill was then partially undercut, successfully creating a 13.7-m (45-ft) wide by 30.5-m (100-ft) long span beneath the CRF. Only small vertical displacements were measured in the overlying host rock during mining, with most of the movement occurring at shallow depths in the mine roof. Because the back above the CRF sill remained stable, the majority of the mining-induced stress was transferred to the host rock abutments rather than to the backfilled drifts. During retreat mining of the undercut span, the CRF sill and the mine roof remained stable. Most of the measured vertical displacement was caused by separation of the backfill from the overlying host rock, or deflection of the CRF sill, which was comparable to the deflection of a monolithic, elastic plate having similar dimensions, material properties, and undercut spans. The CRF sill moved in mass as a single unit rather than as individual drift segments, and the vertical cold joints between adjacent backfill drifts did not adversely affect their stability. Additional measurements collected from the instruments have shown that the backfill span is still intact and in stable condition more than 16 years after the completion of undercut mining. Displacements in the mine roof and abutments have stabilized, and vertical stress and deformation within the CRF have generally leveled off or decreased. Although only slight mining-induced loads were transferred to the backfilled drifts, the CRF has confined the abutment ribs and mine roof, thereby improving their long-term stability. Results of compressive and tensile strength tests conducted with CRF samples from the test site indicate that the long-term compressive strength gain for CRF is similar to that of concrete, and that the tensile-to-compressive strength ratio for CRF is about 1/6 rather than 1/10. Assuming the in-place CRF gained strength at the same rate as the lab samples, an analytical analysis of the flexural stability of the CRF undercut span shows that the Factor of Safety for the span should have logically increased over time. By providing a better understanding of the long-term strength properties and geomechanical behavior of CRF, these research findings help improve the methods that are used for designing stable, long-term undercut entries beneath cemented backfill.

NIOSH ground control safety research program at Spokane, Washington, is exploring applications of photogrammetry to rock mass and support monitoring. This paper describes two ways photogrammetric techniques are being used. First, photogrammetric data of laboratory testing is being used to correlate energy input and support deformation. This information can be used to infer remaining support toughness after ground deformation events. This technique is also demonstrated in a field application. Second, field photogrammetric data is compared to crackmeter data from a deep underground mine. Accuracies were found to average 8. mm, but have produced results within 0.2. mm of true displacement, as measured by crackmeters. Application of these techniques consists of monitoring overall fault activity by monitoring multiple points around the crackmeter. A case study is provided in which a crackmeter is clearly shown to have provided insufficient information regarding overall fault ground deformation. Photogrammetry is proving to be a useful ground monitoring tool due to its unobtrusiveness and ease of use.