OBJECTIVE: This research assessed the reduction of peak levels, equivalent energy and sound power of firearm suppressors. DESIGN: The first study evaluated the effect of three suppressors at four microphone positions around four firearms. The second study assessed the suppressor-related reduction of sound power with a 3 m hemispherical microphone array for two firearms. RESULTS: The suppressors reduced exposures at the ear between 17 and 24 dB peak sound pressure level and reduced the 8 h equivalent A-weighted energy between 9 and 21 dB depending upon the firearm and ammunition. Noise reductions observed for the instructor's position about a metre behind the shooter were between 20 and 28 dB peak sound pressure level and between 11 and 26 dB LAeq,8h. Firearm suppressors reduced the measured sound power levels between 2 and 23 dB. Sound power reductions were greater for the low-velocity ammunition than for the same firearms fired with high-velocity ammunition due to the effect of N-waves produced by a supersonic bullet. CONCLUSIONS: Firearm suppressors may reduce noise exposure, and the cumulative exposures of suppressed firearms can still present a significant hearing risk. Therefore, firearm users should always wear hearing protection whenever target shooting or hunting.

In the United States and other parts of the world, recreational firearm shooting is a popular sport that puts the hearing of the shooter at risk. Peak sound pressure levels (SPLs) from firearms range from approximately 140 to 175 dB. The majority of recreational firearms (excluding small-caliber 0.17 and 0.22 rifles and air rifles) generate between 150 and 165 dB peak SPLs. High-intensity impulse sounds will permanently damage delicate cochlear structures, and thus individuals who shoot firearms are at a higher risk of bilateral, high-frequency, noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) than peer groups who do not shoot. In this article, we describe several factors that influence the risk of NIHL including the use of a muzzle brake, the number of shots fired, the distance between shooters, the shooting environment, the choice of ammunition, the use of a suppressor, and hearing protection fit and use. Prevention strategies that address these factors and recommendations for specialized hearing protectors designed for shooting sports are offered. Partnerships are needed between the hearing health community, shooting sport groups, and wildlife conservation organizations to develop and disseminate accurate information and promote organizational resources that support hearing loss prevention efforts.

OBJECTIVE: To characterize the impulse noise exposure and auditory risk for air rifle users for both youth and adults. DESIGN: Acoustic characteristics were examined and the auditory risk estimates were evaluated using contemporary damage-risk criteria for unprotected adult listeners and the 120-dB peak limit and LAeq75 exposure limit suggested by the World Health Organization (1999) for children. STUDY SAMPLE: Impulses were generated by nine pellet air rifles and one BB air rifle. RESULTS: None of the air rifles generated peak levels that exceeded the 140 dB peak limit for adults, and eight (80%) exceeded the 120 dB peak SPL limit for youth. In general, for both adults and youth, there is minimal auditory risk when shooting fewer than 100 unprotected shots with pellet air rifles. Air rifles with suppressors were less hazardous than those without suppressors, and the pellet air rifles with higher velocities were generally more hazardous than those with lower velocities. CONCLUSION: To minimize auditory risk, youth should utilize air rifles with an integrated suppressor and lower velocity ratings. Air rifle shooters are advised to wear hearing protection whenever engaging in shooting activities in order to gain self-efficacy and model appropriate hearing health behaviors necessary for recreational firearm use.

OBJECTIVE: To characterize the impulse noise exposure and auditory risk for youth recreational firearm users engaged in outdoor target shooting events. The youth shooting positions are typically standing or sitting at a table, which places the firearm closer to the ground or reflective surface when compared to adult shooters. DESIGN: Acoustic characteristics were examined and the auditory risk estimates were evaluated using contemporary damage-risk criteria for unprotected adult listeners and the 120-dB peak limit suggested by the World Health Organization (1999) for children. Study sample: Impulses were generated by 26 firearm/ammunition configurations representing rifles, shotguns, and pistols used by youth. Measurements were obtained relative to a youth shooter's left ear. RESULTS: All firearms generated peak levels that exceeded the 120 dB peak limit suggested by the WHO for children. In general, shooting from the seated position over a tabletop increases the peak levels, LAeq8 and reduces the unprotected maximum permissible exposures (MPEs) for both rifles and pistols. Pistols pose the greatest auditory risk when fired over a tabletop. CONCLUSION: Youth should utilize smaller caliber weapons, preferably from the standing position, and always wear hearing protection whenever engaging in shooting activities to reduce the risk for auditory damage.

OBJECTIVE: This study describes signals generated by .22 and .32 caliber starter pistols in the context of noise-induced hearing loss risk for sports officials and athletes. DESIGN: Acoustic comparison of impulses generated from typical .22 and .32 caliber starter pistols firing blanks were made to impulses generated from comparable firearms firing both blanks and live rounds. Acoustic characteristics are described in terms of directionality and distance from the shooter in a simulated outdoor running track. Metrics include peak sound pressure levels (SPL), A-weighted equivalent 8-hour level (L eqA8 ), and maximum permissible number of individual shots, or maximum permissible exposures (MPE) for the unprotected ear. RESULTS: Starter pistols produce peak SPLs above 140 dB. The numbers of MPEs are as few as five for the .22-caliber starter pistol, and somewhat higher (≤25) for the .32-caliber pistol. CONCLUSION: The impulsive sounds produced by starter pistols correspond to MPE numbers that are unacceptably small for unprotected officials and others in the immediate vicinity of the shooter. At the distances included in this study, the risk to athletes appears to be low (when referencing exposure criteria for adults), but the sound associated with the starter pistol will contribute to the athlete’s overall noise exposure.

OBJECTIVE: In 2009, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) proposed an impulse noise reduction rating (NRR) for hearing protection devices based upon the impulse peak insertion loss (IPIL) methods in the ANSI S12.42-2010 standard. This study tests the ANSI S12.42 methods with a range of hearing protection devices measured in field conditions. DESIGN: The method utilizes an acoustic test fixture and three ranges for impulse levels: 130-134, 148-152, and 166-170 dB peak SPL. For this study, four different models of hearing protectors were tested: Bilsom 707 Impact II electronic earmuff, E A R Pod Express, E A R Combat Arms version 4, and the Etymotic Research, Inc. Electronic BlastPLG EB1. STUDY SAMPPLE: Five samples of each protector were fitted on the fixture or inserted in the fixture's ear canal five times for each impulse level. Impulses were generated by a 0.223 caliber rifle. RESULTS: The average IPILs increased with peak pressure and ranged between 20 and 38 dB. For some protectors, significant differences were observed across protector examples of the same model, and across insertions. CONCLUSIONS: The EPA's proposed methods provide consistent and reproducible results. The proposed impulse NRR rating should utilize the minimum and maximum protection percentiles as determined by the ANSI S12.42-2010 methods.