Seasonal influenza causes 290,000-650,000 deaths annually, with vaccination efficacy ranging from 10 to 60%. The emergence of drug-resistant and highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses underscores the urgent need for novel protective strategies. Epidemiological observations have long suggested that certain vaccines, such as Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG), can provide protection against diverse pathogens (S. Biering-Sørensen, P. Aaby, N. Lund, et al., Clin Infect Dis 65:1183-1190, 2017, https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/cix525; M.-L. Garly, C. L. Martins, C. Balé, et al., Vaccine 21:2782-2790, 2003, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0264-410x(03)00181-6; C. A. G. Timmermann, S. Biering-Sørensen, P. Aaby, et al., Trop Med Int Health 20:1733-1744, 2015, https://doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12614). While the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying such protection remain incompletely understood, emerging research offers critical insights into innate immune system modulation (B. Cirovic, L. C. J. de Bree, L. Groh, et al., Cell Host Microbe 28:322-334, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2020.05.014; L. Kong, S. J. C. F. M. Moorlag, A. Lefkovith, et al., Cell Rep 37:110028, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2021.110028; H. Mohammadi, N. Sharafkandi, M. Hemmatzadeh, et al., J Cell Physiol 233:4512-4529, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1002/jcp.26250; S. J. C. F. M. Moorlag, Y. A. Rodriguez-Rosales, J. Gillard, et al., Cell Rep 33:108387, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2020.108387). We investigated whether a trained innate immune system with non-replicating adenoviruses could provide protection against diverse influenza virus strains. We demonstrated that replication-defective human adenoviruses can effectively train the innate immune system, conferring protective immunity in mice against multiple influenza virus strains, including H1N1, H3N2, H5N2, H7N9, and H9N2. In addition, bovine and chimpanzee adenoviruses can also activate human innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) and confer protection against challenge with influenza H3N2 virus in mice. Remarkably, this protection occurs in the complete absence of influenza-specific adaptive immune responses (influenza virus-specific hemagglutination-inhibiting antibodies, neutralizing antibodies, and influenza nucleoprotein-specific CD8 T cells). Key protective mechanisms include increased activation of ILC1, ILC2, and ILC3 populations, enhanced expression of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs), upregulation of antiviral signaling pathways, and metabolic reprogramming of ILC subsets. Adoptive transfer experiments demonstrated that trained ILCs were sufficient to protect against influenza H1N1 infection in ILC-deficient mice. This research establishes a novel strategy for enhancing innate antiviral immunity, offering broad-spectrum protection against diverse influenza strains, a promising approach for not only pandemic preparedness but also against emerging infectious diseases. Training innate lymphoid cells through non-replicating adenoviral vectors represents a promising approach to enhancing broad-spectrum antiviral immunity, complementing traditional vaccination strategies.IMPORTANCEThe findings represent a potential game-changer for fighting influenza, which kills hundreds of thousands of people worldwide each year despite our best vaccination efforts. Current flu vaccines often provide limited protection because they must be reformulated annually to match circulating strains, and their effectiveness varies dramatically from year to year. The scientists discovered something remarkable: common adenoviruses (which typically cause mild cold-like symptoms) can essentially "train" our immune system's first line of defense to recognize and fight off multiple types of flu viruses simultaneously. This protection works through a completely different mechanism than traditional vaccines-it does not rely on creating specific antibodies against flu proteins. Instead, the treatment activates special immune cells called innate lymphoid cells (ILCs), which act like the body's rapid response team. These trained cells provide broad protection against various flu strains, including dangerous bird flu variants that could cause future pandemics. The significance lies in potentially creating a universal flu protection strategy that could work against unknown future flu strains, offering hope for better pandemic preparedness and reducing seasonal flu's devastating global impact.

Recommendations to use deer-excluding fencing as a method to reduce blacklegged ticks (Ixodes scapularis Say) in residential settings are based primarily upon studies excluding deer from large areas (≥3.5 hectares), often in undeveloped woodland settings. Evidence is still needed on the efficacy of deer-excluding fences for tick management at smaller suburban residential properties common to tick-endemic areas of the northeastern United States. We measured I. scapularis abundance at 16 fenced and 16 unfenced properties in Fairfield County, Connecticut, Westchester County, New York, and Washington County, Rhode Island. Overall, adult and nymphal I. scapularis encounter rates (ticks per sampling meter) were slightly higher on unfenced properties compared to within fenced properties, but differences were not significant (P > 0.05). Among fenced properties alone, tick encounter rates were significantly higher in areas immediately outside of fences compared with inside of fences for nymphs (P = 0.005), but not for adults (P > 0.05). Prevalence of tick pathogen infection with Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, Borrelia miyamotoi, Babesia microti, Babesia odocoilei, or Anaplasma phagocytophilum did not differ significantly between fenced and unfenced properties (P > 0.05). Irrespective of fencing, adult tick abundance was higher at properties with stonewalls, dense herbaceous ecotone vegetation, and an absence of bird feeders. Nymphal tick encounter rates were associated with stonewalls, an absence of bird feeders, and presence of dense herbaceous understory vegetation. Household survey data revealed that deer were observed within some fenced areas. Our findings do not provide strong evidence that deer-excluding fences at properties smaller than 3.5 hectares surpress blacklegged ticks.

Salmonella infections linked to seafood consumption have the potential to cause serious illness, with reported incidence of foodborne illness associated with contaminated seafood increasing in the past decade. While technological advancements over the last decade have made significant progress in the detection, reporting, and determining the source of illness from bacterial pathogens including Salmonella, prevention of these illnesses remains the same, basic sanitation control. We examined data from Salmonella outbreaks linked to fish and fishery products (excluding raw molluscan shellfish) during the period 2012-2021. In that time, there were five confirmed multistate Salmonella outbreaks, including 633 illnesses and 92 hospitalizations associated with fish and fishery products, and four additional multistate outbreaks with 88 illnesses and 12 hospitalizations where fish and fishery products were a suspect vehicle. We summarize common findings and challenges in the traceback investigations related to these outbreaks, particularly considering traceback challenges involving imported seafood, and discuss sanitary practices and regulatory approaches to prevent Salmonella outbreaks linked to fish and fishery products. Some of the most frequent insanitary observations included the safety of the water used in manufacturing food and ice; using water hoses to create overspray that may cross-contaminate food and food contact surfaces in the processing areas; and inadequate cleaning and sanitizing. Environmental contamination (e.g. from bird feces and insects) and improperly sanitized surfaces and cutting tools were also observed in some inspections. Sanitation controls are especially critical for raw ready-to-eat seafood and controls ensuring proper cooking and sanitary conditions and practices after cooking are critical for cooked product. These sanitation controls prevent foodborne outbreaks and recalls, safeguard consumers, and maintain trust in the food supply chain.

The incidence of human tick-borne diseases is rising globally. Birds are ecologically significant hosts, capable of local or widespread dispersal for ticks and their associated pathogens, including agents of babesiosis. Despite its emerging importance, surveillance for zoonotic Babesia spp. ((Starcovici, 1893) Piroplasmida: Babesiidae) remains lacking, particularly in avian hosts. This study investigates the prevalence of Babesia spp. in a population of Carolina Wrens ((Latham, 1790) Passeriformes: Troglodytidae Thryothorus ludovicianus) in Missouri, USA. Due to their ground-foraging behavior and documented high tick burdens, we hypothesized that Carolina Wrens would have Babesia spp. infections. Birds were captured using mist nets, examined for ticks, and phlebotomized for blood samples. We prepared blood smears which were analyzed via microscopy for the presence of Babesia spp. parasites. During June and July 2018, we captured 70 birds from 14 species and collected 156 ticks, of which 152 were Ixodes scapularis ((Say, 1821) Acari: Ixodidae). Carolina Wrens accounted for the highest tick burdens (130 ticks total) with juvenile birds having significantly higher nymphal tick burdens than adults. Despite examining the blood smears of 23 Carolina Wrens and 5 Louisiana Waterthrushes (Parkesia motacilla) for Babesia spp., we found no evidence of infection. Our findings emphasize the notably high tick burdens in Carolina Wrens while underscoring the need for broader and more sensitive surveillance for Babesia spp. in bird populations. Understanding the role of avian hosts in the ecology of tick-borne pathogens is key for anticipating and mitigating public health risks associated with tick-borne disease.

Histoplasmosis is a fungal infection that primarily affects the lungs. The condition is caused by Histoplasma organisms, which are often found in soil contaminated with bird or bat droppings. On January 17, 2025, a Georgia infectious disease physician notified CDC of suspected histoplasmosis cases among 12 members of an extended family from households in Georgia, Texas, and Washington. The ill family members included six adults aged 42-49 years and six children aged 8-16 years. They had recently returned from Costa Rica, where they toured a cave linked to a previous histoplasmosis outbreak (1).

Influenza viruses can be aerosolized when slaughtering infected chickens, which increases the risk of zoonotic transmission. We conducted pilot experiments to measure the concentrations of airborne particles <2.5 µm during slaughtering and defeathering of chickens to help identify methods that can minimize workers’ exposure to potentially hazardous aerosol particles. By using two types of airborne particle monitors stationed at different heights and angles in a controlled environment, we measured aerosolized particulate matters during exsanguination of 10 slaughtered chickens and use of a mechanical device for defeathering 10 chickens. For the slaughtering experiments, the median particle concentrations at 148 cm height were 67 µg/m3 (IQR 44–121) with a baseline count 10 µg/m3 (IQR 10–10) for the Particle and Temperature Sensor + (PATS+) monitors and 34 µg/m3 (IQR 34–64) with a baseline count 25 µg/m3 (IQR 16–44) for the SidePak™ monitor. For the defeathering experiments, the median particle concentrations recorded by the PATS+ monitors were not significantly different between 148 cm (41 µg/m3, IQR 29–49; baseline 12 µg/m3, IQR 10–19) and 107 cm height (37 µg/m3, IQR 29–44; baseline 13 µg/m3, IQR 10–22). Our protocol can be used to test the generation of airborne particles that are <2.5 µm during different slaughtering and defeathering techniques used in the live bird markets to identify procedures that produce the lowest concentrations of small aerosol particles. © 2025

Since 2020, there has been unprecedented global spread of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) in wild bird populations with spillover into a variety of mammalian species and sporadically humans(1). In March 2024, clade 2.3.4.4b A(H5N1) virus was first detected in dairy cattle in the U.S., with subsequent detection in numerous states(2), leading to over a dozen confirmed human cases(3,4). In this study, we employed the ferret model, a well-characterized species that permits concurrent investigation of viral pathogenicity and transmissibility(5) in the evaluation of A/Texas/37/2024 (TX/37) A(H5N1) virus isolated from a dairy farm worker in Texas(6). Here, we show that the virus has a remarkable ability for robust systemic infection in ferrets, leading to high levels of virus shedding and spread to naïve contacts. Ferrets inoculated with TX/37 rapidly exhibited a severe and fatal infection, characterized by viremia and extrapulmonary spread. The virus efficiently transmitted in a direct contact setting and was capable of indirect transmission via fomites. Airborne transmission was corroborated by the detection of infectious virus shed into the air by infected animals, albeit at lower levels compared to the highly transmissible human seasonal and swine-origin H1 subtype strains. Our results show that despite maintaining an avian-like receptor binding specificity, TX/37 displays heightened virulence, transmissibility, and airborne shedding relative to other clade 2.3.4.4b virus isolated prior to the 2024 cattle outbreaks(7), underscoring the need for continued public health vigilance.

Following the detection of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus in countries bordering Kenya to the west, we conducted surveillance among domestic and wild birds along the shores of Lake Victoria. In addition, between 2018 and 2020, we conducted surveillance among poultry and poultry workers in live bird markets and among wild migratory birds in various lakes that are resting sites during migration to assess introduction and circulation of avian influenza viruses in these populations. We tested 7464 specimens (oropharyngeal (OP) and cloacal specimens) from poultry and 6531 fresh fecal specimens from wild birds for influenza A viruses by real-time RT-PCR. Influenza was detected in 3.9% (n = 292) of specimens collected from poultry and 0.2% (n = 10) of fecal specimens from wild birds. On hemagglutinin subtyping, most of the influenza A positives from poultry (274/292, 93.8%) were H9. Of 34 H9 specimens randomly selected for further subtyping, all were H9N2. On phylogenetic analysis, these viruses were genetically similar to other H9 viruses detected in East Africa. Only two of the ten influenza A-positive specimens from the wild bird fecal specimens were successfully subtyped; sequencing analysis of one specimen collected in 2018 was identified as a low-pathogenicity avian influenza H5N2 virus of the Eurasian lineage, and the second specimen, collected in 2020, was subtyped as H11. A total of 18 OP and nasal specimens from poultry workers with acute respiratory illness (12%) were collected; none were positive for influenza A virus. We observed significant circulation of H9N2 influenza viruses in poultry in live bird markets in Kenya. During the same period, low-pathogenic H5N2 virus was detected in a fecal specimen collected in a site hosting a variety of migratory and resident birds. Although HPAI H5N8 was not detected in this survey, these results highlight the potential for the introduction and establishment of highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses in poultry populations and the associated risk of spillover to human populations.

Changes in the epidemiology and ecology of H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza are devastating wild bird and poultry populations, farms and communities, and wild mammals worldwide. Having originated in farmed poultry, H5N1 viruses are now spread globally by wild birds, with transmission to many mammal and avian species, resulting in 2024 in transmission among dairy cattle with associated human cases. These ecological changes pose challenges to mitigating the impacts of H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza on wildlife, ecosystems, domestic animals, food security, and humans. H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza highlights the need for One Health approaches to pandemic prevention and preparedness, emphasising multisectoral collaborations among animal, environmental, and public health sectors. Action is needed to reduce future pandemic risks by preventing transmission of highly pathogenic avian influenza among domestic and wild animals and people, focusing on upstream drivers of outbreaks, and ensuring rapid responses and risk assessments for zoonotic outbreaks. Political commitment and sustainable funding are crucial to implementing and maintaining prevention programmes, surveillance, and outbreak responses.

The coccidian parasite Cyclospora cayetanensis is the causative agent for foodborne outbreaks of cyclosporiasis disease and multiple annual fresh produce recalls. The aim of this study was to identify potential cross-reacting species for the C. cayetanensis 18S rRNA and MIT1C gene target real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assays. The environmental samples evaluated were irrigation pond water, produce wash water, and wastewater treatment sludge from a previous study with qPCR detections of C. cayetanensis by the 18S rRNA gene target qPCR. From these samples, longer regions of the 18S rRNA gene and the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit III gene (cox3) were sequenced. Of 65 irrigation pond water samples with positive test results using the C. cayetanensis 18S rRNA gene qPCR assay, none had MIT1C qPCR assay detections or sequences that clustered with C. cayetanensis based on sequencing of the cox3 and 18S rRNA gene. Sequences from these samples clustered around coccidia sequences found in bird, fish, reptile, and amphibian hosts. Of 26 sludge samples showing detections by either qPCR assay, 14 (54%) could be confirmed as containing C. cayetanensis by sequencing of cox3 and 18S rRNA gene regions. In three of the remaining sludge samples, sequenced reads clustered with coccidia from rodents. This study demonstrated that caution should be taken when interpreting qPCR C. cayetanensis detection data in environmental samples and sequencing steps will likely be needed for confirmation. IMPORTANCE: Fresh produce is a leading transmission source in cyclosporiasis outbreaks. It is therefore essential to understand the role that produce-growing environments play in the spread of this disease. To accomplish this, sensitive and specific tests for environmental and irrigation waters must be developed. Potential cross-reactions of Cyclospora cayetanensis real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assays have been identified, hindering the ability to accurately identify this parasite in the environment. Amplicon sequencing of the cox3 and 18S rRNA genes revealed that all irrigation pond water and two sludge samples that initially detected C. cayetanensis by qPCR were most likely cross-reactions with related coccidian organisms shed from birds, fish, reptiles, amphibians, and rodents. These results support that a single testing method for environmental samples is likely not adequate for sensitive and specific detection of C. cayetanensis.

While walking along the bustling streets of Beijing, Chengde, Shenyang, Wuhan, or other Chinese cities during the Qing dynasty (1644–1911), people would regularly brush past bats, cranes, pheasants, peacocks, egrets, or ducks; slow their step so a lion, leopard, tiger, rhinoceros, or bear could hurry past; or yield to allow passage to a dragon, unicorn, or qilin (a chimera with horns, a dragon’s head, fish scales, an oxen’s tail, horse’s hooves, and multicolored skin). Of course, it was not those actual animals jostling their way through the crowded causeways but rather myriad Chinese statesmen, civic officials, military officers, and members of the imperial court, as well as their wives, all of whom indicated their rank and status by wearing embroidered badges featuring images of those creatures on their outer coats. | | From the late 14th century until the early 20th century ce, these ornate rank badges (called buzi or Mandarin squares) featured fierce animals to denote military officials, various bird species to identify civic officials, and exotic and imaginary creatures to signify members of the imperial court. Art historian Mary Dusenbury writes, “Qing badges generally include an abbreviated cosmic diagram with an earth-mountain in the lower center, and a multitude of auspicious symbols filling up the surrounding space. In the center, the animal or bird looks up at a prominent red sun, symbol of the emperor.”

Avian influenza viruses (AIVs) infect both wild birds and domestic poultry, resulting in economically costly outbreaks that have the potential to impact public health. Currently, a knowledge gap exists regarding the detection of infectious AIVs in the aquatic environment. In response to the 2021-2022 Eurasian strain highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) A/goose/Guangdong/1/1996 clade 2.3.4.4 lineage H5 outbreak, an AIV environmental outbreak response study was conducted using a One Health approach. An optimized method was used to temporally sample (April and May 2022) and analyze (culture and molecular methods) surface water from five water bodies (four wetlands and one lake used as a comparison location) in areas near confirmed HPAI detections in wild bird or poultry operations. Avian influenza viruses were isolated from water samples collected in April from all four wetlands (not from the comparison lake sample); HPAI H5N1 was isolated from one wetland. No virus was isolated from the May samples. Several factors, including increased water temperatures, precipitation, biotic and abiotic factors, and absence of AIV-contaminated fecal material due to fewer waterfowl present, may have contributed to the lack of virus isolation from May samples. Results demonstrate surface water as a plausible medium for transmission of AIVs, including the HPAI virus.

BACKGROUND: Highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5) human infections are a global concern, with many A(H5) human cases detected in Vietnam, including a case in October 2022. Using avian influenza virus surveillance from March 2017-September 2022, we described the percent of pooled samples that were positive for avian influenza A, A(H5), A(H5N1), A(H5N6), and A(H5N8) viruses in live bird markets (LBMs) in Vietnam. METHODS: Monthly at each LBM, 30 poultry oropharyngeal swab specimens and five environmental samples were collected. Samples were pooled in groups of five and tested for influenza A, A(H5), A(H5N1), A(H5N6), and A(H5N8) viruses by real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. Trends in the percent of pooled samples that were positive for avian influenza were summarized by LBM characteristics and time and compared with the number of passively detected avian influenza outbreaks using Spearman's rank correlation. RESULTS: A total of 25,774 pooled samples were collected through active surveillance at 167 LBMs in 24 provinces; 36.9% of pooled samples were positive for influenza A, 3.6% A(H5), 1.9% A(H5N1), 1.1% A(H5N6), and 0.2% A(H5N8). Influenza A(H5) viruses were identified January-December and at least once in 91.7% of sampled provinces. In 246 A(H5) outbreaks in poultry; 20.3% were influenza A(H5N1), 60.2% A(H5N6), and 19.5% A(H5N8); outbreaks did not correlate with active surveillance. CONCLUSIONS: In Vietnam, influenza A(H5) viruses were detected by active surveillance in LBMs year-round and in most provinces sampled. In addition to outbreak reporting, active surveillance for A(H5) viruses in settings with high potential for animal-to-human spillover can provide situational awareness.

Salmonella infection causes epidemic death in wild songbirds, with potential to spread to humans. In February 2021, public health officials in Oregon and Washington, USA, isolated a strain of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium from humans and a wild songbird. Investigation by public health partners ultimately identified 30 illnesses in 12 states linked to an epidemic of Salmonella Typhimurium in songbirds. We report a multistate outbreak of human salmonellosis associated with songbirds, resulting from direct handling of sick and dead birds or indirect contact with contaminated birdfeeders. Companion animals might have contributed to the spread of Salmonella between songbirds and patients; the outbreak strain was detected in 1 ill dog, and a cat became ill after contact with a wild bird. This outbreak highlights a One Health issue where actions like regular cleaning of birdfeeders might reduce the health risk to wildlife, companion animals, and humans.

BACKGROUND: Interpreting rRT-PCR results for human avian influenza A virus (AIV) detection in contaminated settings like live bird markets (LBMs) without serology or viral culture poses a challenge. METHODS: During February-March 2012 and November 2012-February 2013, we screened workers at nine LBMs in Dhaka, Bangladesh to confirm molecular detections of AIV RNA in respiratory specimens with serology. We tested nasopharyngeal (NP) and throat swabs from workers with influenza-like-illness (ILI) and NP, throat, and arm swabs from asymptomatic workers for influenza virus by rRT-PCR and sera for seroconversion and antibodies against HPAI A(H5N1) and A(H9N2) viruses. RESULTS: Among 1,273 ILI cases, 34 (2.6%) had A(H5), 56 (4%) had A(H9), and 6 (0.4%) had both A(H5) and A(H9) detected by rRT-PCR. Of 192 asymptomatic workers, A(H5) was detected in 8 (4%) NP and 38 (20%) arm swabs. Of 28 ILI cases with A(H5) or A(H9) detected, none had evidence of seroconversion, but 1 (3.5%) and 12 (43%), were seropositive for A(H5) and A(H9), respectively. CONCLUSION: Detection of AIV RNA in respiratory specimens from symptomatic and asymptomatic LBM workers without evidence of seroconversion or virus isolation suggests environmental contamination, emphasizing caution in interpreting rRT-PCR results in high viral load settings.

In 2015, human influenza surveillance identified a human infection with A/H9N2 in Dhaka, Bangladesh with evidence of exposure to a sick quail. We conducted in-depth interviews with household quail caregivers, pet bird retail shop owners, and mobile vendors, key informant interviews with pet bird wholesale shop owners, one group discussion with pet bird retail shop workers and unstructured observations in households, pet bird wholesale and retail markets, and mobile bird vendor's travelling areas to explore quail rearing and selling practices among households, mobile vendors, and retail pet bird and wholesale bird markets in Dhaka. Every day, quail were supplied from 23 districts to two wholesale markets, and then sold to households and restaurants directly, or through bird shops and mobile vendors. All respondents (67) reported keeping quail with other birds in cages, feeding quail, cleaning feeding pots, removing quail faeces, slaughtering sick quail, and discarding dead quail. Children played with quail and assisted in slaughtering of quail. Most respondents (94%) reported rinsing hands with water only after slaughtering and disposing of wastes and dead quail. No personal protective equipment was used during any activities. Frequent unprotected contact with quail and their by-products potentially increased the risk of cross-species avian influenza virus transmission. Avian influenza surveillance in retail pet bird and wholesale bird markets, mobile vendors, and households may identify cases promptly and reduce the risk of virus transmission.

Ivermectin (IVM)-treated birds provide the potential for targeted control of Culex mosquitoes to reduce West Nile virus (WNV) transmission. Ingestion of IVM increases mosquito mortality, which could reduce WNV transmission from birds to humans and in enzootic maintenance cycles affecting predominantly bird-feeding mosquitoes and from birds to humans. This strategy might also provide an alternative method for WNV control that is less hampered by insecticide resistance and the logistics of large-scale pesticide applications. Through a combination of field studies and modeling, we assessed the feasibility and impact of deploying IVM-treated birdfeed in residential neighborhoods to reduce WNV transmission. We first tracked 105 birds using radio telemetry and radio frequency identification to monitor their feeder usage and locations of nocturnal roosts in relation to five feeder sites in a neighborhood in Fort Collins, Colorado. Using these results, we then modified a compartmental model of WNV transmission to account for the impact of IVM on mosquito mortality and spatial movement of birds and mosquitoes on the neighborhood level. We found that, while the number of treated lots in a neighborhood strongly influenced the total transmission potential, the arrangement of treated lots in a neighborhood had little effect. Increasing the proportion of treated birds, regardless of the WNV competency status, resulted in a larger reduction in infection dynamics than only treating competent birds. Taken together, model results indicate that deployment of IVM-treated feeders could reduce local transmission throughout the WNV season, including reducing the enzootic transmission prior to the onset of human infections, with high spatial coverage and rates of IVM-induced mortality in mosquitoes. To improve predictions, more work is needed to refine estimates of daily mosquito movement in urban areas and rates of IVM-induced mortality. Our results can guide future field trials of this control strategy.

Chlamydia psittaci is a bacterium that causes chlamydiosis in birds and can cause zoonotic psittacosis in people. In November 2017, we received notification of a suspected case of avian chlamydiosis in a captive cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus) that was sold by an online pet bird retail and breeding facility in Washington State. We describe the investigation with emphasis on how environmental sampling was used to guide veterinary and public health interventions. Bird samples were collected either from pooled droppings, pooled plumage or individual nasal and choanal swabs. Environmental samples were obtained by swabbing cleaning mops, tables and cage structures. All samples were tested by polymerase chain reaction and positive samples underwent genotyping. Approximately 1000 birds representing four taxonomic orders were kept within an open-space warehouse. Eight of 14 environmental samples and one of two pooled faecal samples were positive for Chlamydia spp. The contaminating strain of Chlamydia spp. was identified as genotype A. The facility was closed for environmental disinfection, and all psittacines were treated with oral doxycycline for 45 days. Ten of 10 environmental and two of two pooled faecal samples were negative for C. psittaci 11 months after the completion of environmental disinfection and antimicrobial treatment. This investigation highlights the importance of preventing and mitigating pathogen incursion in an online pet retail and breeding facility. Environmental sampling is valuable to guide animal and public health interventions for control of C. psittaci, particularly when large numbers of birds are exposed to the pathogen.

A previously described universal parasite diagnostic (nUPDx) based on PCR amplification of the 18S rDNA and deep-amplicon sequencing, can detect human blood parasites with a sensitivity comparable to real-time PCR. To date, the efficacy of this assay has only been assessed on human blood. This study assessed the utility of nUPDx for the detection of parasitic infections in animals using blood, tissues, and other biological sample types from mammals, birds, and reptiles, known to be infected with helminth, apicomplexan, or pentastomid parasites (confirmed by microscopy or PCR), as well as negative samples. nUPDx confirmed apicomplexan and/or nematode infections in 24 of 32 parasite-positive mammals, while also identifying several undetected coinfections. nUPDx detected infections in 6 of 13 positive bird and 1 of 2 positive reptile samples. When applied to 10 whole parasite specimens (worms and arthropods), nUPDx identified all to the genus or family level, and detected one incorrect identification made by morphology. Babesia sp. infections were detected in 5 of the 13 samples that were negative by other diagnostic approaches. While nUPDx did not detect PCR/microscopy-confirmed trichomonads or amoebae in cloacal swabs/tissue from 8 birds and 2 reptiles due to primer template mismatches, 4 previously undetected apicomplexans were detected in these samples. Future efforts to improve the utility of the assay should focus on validation against a larger panel of tissue types and animal species. Overall, nUPDx shows promise for use in both veterinary diagnostics and wildlife surveillance, especially because species-specific PCRs can miss unknown or unexpected pathogens.

Histoplasmosis, one of the most frequent endemic mycoses in the Americas, is caused by the inhalation of airborne conidia of Histoplasma capsulatum. Better understanding of the distribution of this fungus in the environment is important for the development of appropriate public health measures to prevent human infections. Previously, we used Hc100 nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to identify H. capsulatum DNA in 10% of environmental samples in Colombia. Here, we validate a 100-kDa real-time PCR assay for the detection of this fungus in the environment. Using this method, we identified H. capsulatum DNA in 80% of samples of raw organic materials, such as chicken manure, soil from caves, and bird and bat guano, as well as in 62% of samples of organic fertilizer that underwent the composting process. We demonstrated that 100-KDa real-time PCR is a useful tool for environmental surveillance that can be used to identify the potential reservoirs of H. capsulatum and to prevent outbreaks, especially in people with the higher risk of exposure, such as spelunkers, farmers, poultry manure collectors, and anyone who handle organic fertilizers or bat and bird excreta.

BACKGROUND: Clinicians increasingly serve youths from societal/cultural backgrounds different from their own. This raises questions about how to interpret what such youths report. Rescorla et al. (2019, European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 1107) found that much more variance in 72,493 parents' ratings of their offspring's mental health problems was accounted for by individual differences than by societal or cultural differences. Although parents' reports are essential for clinical assessment of their offspring, they reflect parents' perceptions of the offspring. Consequently, clinical assessment also requires self-reports from the offspring themselves. To test effects of individual differences, society, and culture on youths' self-ratings of their problems and strengths, we analyzed Youth Self-Report (YSR) scores for 39,849 11-17 year olds in 38 societies. METHODS: Indigenous researchers obtained YSR self-ratings from population samples of youths in 38 societies representing 10 culture cluster identified in the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavioral Effectiveness study. Hierarchical linear modeling of scores on 17 problem scales and one strengths scale estimated the percent of variance accounted for by individual differences (including measurement error), society, and culture cluster. ANOVAs tested age and gender effects. RESULTS: Averaged across the 17 problem scales, individual differences accounted for 92.5% of variance, societal differences 6.0%, and cultural differences 1.5%. For strengths, individual differences accounted for 83.4% of variance, societal differences 10.1%, and cultural differences 6.5%. Age and gender had very small effects. CONCLUSIONS: Like parents' ratings, youths' self-ratings of problems were affected much more by individual differences than societal/cultural differences. Most variance in self-rated strengths also reflected individual differences, but societal/cultural effects were larger than for problems, suggesting greater influence of social desirability. The clinical significance of individual differences in youths' self-reports should thus not be minimized by societal/cultural differences, which-while important-can be taken into account with appropriate norms, as can gender and age differences.

Human infection with Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV), a tick-borne pathogen in the family Nairoviridae, can result in a spectrum of outcomes, ranging from asymptomatic infection through mild clinical signs to severe or fatal disease. Studies of CCHFV immunobiology have investigated the relationship between innate and adaptive immune responses with disease severity, attempting to elucidate factors associated with differential outcomes. In this article, we begin by highlighting unanswered questions, then review current efforts to answer them. We discuss in detail current clinical studies and research in laboratory animals on CCHF, including immune targets of infection and adaptive and innate immune responses. We summarize data about the role of the immune response in natural infections of animals and humans and experimental studies in vitro and in vivo and from evaluating immune-based therapies and vaccines, and present recommendations for future research.

In March 2021, Lao People's Democratic Republic (Laos) reported an avian influenza A(H5N6) virus infection in a 5-year-old child identified through sentinel surveillance. This was the first human A(H5N6) infection reported outside of China. A multidisciplinary investigation undertook contact tracing and enhanced human and animal surveillance in surrounding villages and live bird markets. Seven Muscovy ducks tested positive for highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N6) viruses. Sequenced viruses belonged to clade 2.3.4.4h and were closely related to viruses detected in poultry in Vietnam and to previous viruses detected in Laos. Surveillance and coordinated outbreak response remain essential to global health security.

Vertebrate surveillance for eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) activity usually focuses on three types of vertebrates: horses, passerine birds, and sentinel chicken flocks. However, there is a variety of wild vertebrates that are exposed to EEEV infections and can be used to track EEEV activity. In 2009, we initiated a pilot study in northern New England, United States, to evaluate the effectiveness of using wild cervids (free-ranging white-tailed deer and moose) as spatial sentinels for EEEV activity. In Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont during 2009-2017, we collected blood samples from hunter-harvested cervids at tagging stations and obtained harvest location information from hunters. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention processed the samples for EEEV antibodies using plaque reduction neutralization tests (PRNTs). We detected EEEV antibodies in 6 to 17% of cervid samples in the different states and mapped cervid EEEV seropositivity in northern New England. EEEV antibody-positive cervids were the first detections of EEEV activity in the state of Vermont, in northern Maine, and northern New Hampshire. Our key result was the detection of the antibodies in areas far outside the extent of documented wild bird, mosquito, human case, or veterinary case reports of EEEV activity in Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont. These findings showed that cervid (deer and moose) serosurveys can be used to characterize the geographic extent of EEEV activity, especially in areas with low EEEV activity or with little or no EEEV surveillance. Cervid EEEV serosurveys can be a useful tool for mapping EEEV activity in areas of North America in addition to northern New England.

West Nile virus activity was evaluated within an island waterbird nesting colony with > 1,250 birds at Riverside Reservoir, Weld County, Colorado, USA. To avoid disturbance of nesting birds, blood-engorged mosquitoes (Culex tarsalis) were used to sample blood indirectly from birds rather than capturing, sampling, and releasing live birds. Local virus activity was confirmed by West Nile virus-positive feather samples from 26% of 46 carcasses collected during monthly visits to the colony from June to September 2009, including American White Pelican (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos; n = 7), California Gull (Larus californicus; n = 1), Snowy Egret (Egretta thula; n = 2), and Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis; n = 2). Of 22 blood-engorged mosquitoes collected and the blood meal host identified to species, one West Nile virus infection was detected (putatively from a Snowy Egret), and West Nile virus-specific antibodies were detected in eight samples: Snowy Egret (n = 5), Great Blue Heron (Ardea herodias; n = 2), and American White Pelican (n = 1). The engorgement rate of female Culex tarsalis at the nesting colony was 34%, sixfold higher than that at a nearby mainland site of 5.3%. The utilization of mosquitoes for sampling blood from wild animals may have broader application, and potentially reduce human disturbance of sensitive nesting bird species. © 2021 The Waterbird Society. All rights reserved.

In March 2021, following the annual International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) ratification vote on newly proposed taxa, the phylum Negarnaviricota was amended and emended. The phylum was expanded by four families (Aliusviridae, Crepuscuviridae, Myriaviridae, and Natareviridae), three subfamilies (Alpharhabdovirinae, Betarhabdovirinae, and Gammarhabdovirinae), 42 genera, and 200 species. Thirty-nine species were renamed and/or moved and seven species were abolished. This article presents the updated taxonomy of Negarnaviricota as now accepted by the ICTV.

Studies performed during the 1940s-1960s continue to serve as the foundation of the epidemiology of histoplasmosis given that many knowledge gaps persist regarding its geographic distribution, prevalence, and burden in the United States. We explore 3 long-standing, frequently cited, and somewhat incomplete epidemiologic beliefs about histoplasmosis: (1) histoplasmosis is the most common endemic mycosis in the United States, (2) histoplasmosis is endemic to the Ohio and Mississippi River Valleys, and (3) histoplasmosis is associated with bird or bat droppings. We also summarize recent insights about the clinical spectrum of histoplasmosis and changes in underlying conditions associated with the severe forms. Continuing to identify prevention opportunities will require better epidemiologic data, better diagnostic testing, and greater awareness about this neglected disease among health care providers, public health professionals, and the general public. © 2021 Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Infectious Diseases Society of America 2021.

Understanding transmission dynamics that link wild and domestic animals is a key element of predicting the emergence of infectious disease, an event that has highest likelihood of occurring wherever human livelihoods depend on agriculture and animal trade. Contact between poultry and wild birds is a key driver of the emergence of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI), a process that allows for host switching and accelerated reassortment, diversification, and spread of virus between otherwise unconnected regions. This study addresses questions relevant to the spillover of HPAI at a transmission hotspot: what is the nature of the wild bird-poultry interface in Egypt and adjacent Black Sea-Mediterranean countries and how has this contributed to outbreaks occurring worldwide? Using a spatiotemporal model of infection risk informed by satellite tracking of waterfowl and viral phylogenetics, this study identified ecological conditions that contribute to spillover in this understudied region. Results indicated that multiple ducks (Northern Shoveler and Northern Pintail) hosted segments that shared ancestry with HPAI H5 from both clade 2.2.1 and clade 2.3.4 supporting the role of Anseriformes in linking viral populations in East Asia and Africa over large distances. Quantifying the overlap between wild ducks and H5N1-infected poultry revealed an increasing interface in late winter peaking in early spring when ducks expanded their range before migration, with key differences in the timing of poultry contact risk between local and long-distance migrants. Copyright © 2020 Published by Oxford University Press 2020. This work is written by a US Government employee and is in the public domain in the US.

In areas where Histoplasma is endemic in the environment, occupations involving activities exposing workers to soil that contains bird or bat droppings may pose a risk for histoplasmosis. Occupational exposures are frequently implicated in histoplasmosis outbreaks. In this paper, we review the literature on occupationally acquired histoplasmosis. We describe the epidemiology, occupational risk factors, and prevention measures according to the hierarchy of controls.

Deer management (e.g., reduction) has been proposed as a tool to reduce the acarological risk of Lyme disease. There have been few opportunities to investigate Ixodes scapularis (blacklegged tick) and Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto dynamics in the absence of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in midwestern North America. A pair of islands in Lake Michigan presented a unique opportunity to study the role of alternative hosts for the adult stage of the blacklegged tick for maintaining a tick population as a deer herd exists on North Manitou Island but not on South Manitou Island, where coyotes (Canis latrans) and hares (Lepus americanus) are the dominant medium mammals. Additionally, we were able to investigate the maintenance of I. scapularis and B. burgdorferi in small mammal communities on both islands, which were dominated by eastern chipmunks (Tamias striatus). From 2011 to 2015, we surveyed both islands for blacklegged ticks by drag cloth sampling, bird mist netting, and small and medium-sized mammal trapping. We assayed questing ticks, on-host ticks, and mammal biopsies for the Lyme disease pathogen, B. burgdorferi. We detected all three life stages of the blacklegged tick on both islands. Of the medium mammals sampled, no snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus, 0/23) were parasitized by adult blacklegged ticks, but 2/2 coyotes (Canis latrans) sampled on South Manitou Island in 2014 were parasitized by adult blacklegged ticks, suggesting that coyotes played a role in maintaining the tick population in the absence of deer. We also detected I. scapularis ticks on passerine birds from both islands, providing support that birds contribute to maintaining as well as introducing blacklegged ticks and B. burgdorferi to the islands. We observed higher questing adult and nymphal tick densities, and higher B. burgdorferi infection prevalence in small mammals and in adult ticks on the island with deer as compared to the deer-free island. On the islands, we also found that 25% more chipmunks were tick-infested than mice, fed more larvae and nymphs relative to their proportional abundance compared to mice, and thus may play a larger role compared to mice in the maintenance of B. burgdorferi. Our investigation demonstrated that alternative hosts could maintain a local population of blacklegged ticks and an enzootic cycle of the Lyme disease bacterium in the absence of white-tailed deer. Thus, alternative adult blacklegged tick hosts should be considered when investigating deer-targeted management tools for reducing tick-borne disease risk, especially when the alternative host community may be abundant and diverse.