BACKGROUND: In 2015, the World Health Organization recommended that all people living with HIV begin antiretroviral treatment (ART) regardless of immune status, a policy known as 'Treat-All to end AIDS', commonly referred to as Treat-All. Almost all low- and middle-income countries adopted this policy by 2019. This study describes how linkage to treatment of newly diagnosed persons changed between 2015 and 2018 and how complementary policies may have similarly increased linkage for 13 African countries. These countries adopted and implemented Treat-All policies between 2015 and 2018 and were supported by the U.S. Government's President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR). The focuses of this research were to understand 1) linkage rates to ART initiation before and after the adoption of Treat-All in each country; 2) how Treat-All implementation differed across these countries; and 3) whether complementary policies (including same-day treatment initiation, task-shifting, reduced ART visits, and reduced ART pickups) implemented around the same time may have increased ART linkage. METHODS: HIV testing and treatment data were collected by PEPFAR country programs in 13 African countries from 2015 to 2018. These countries were chosen based on the completeness of policy data and availability of program data during the study period. Program data were used to calculate proxy linkage rates. These rates were compared relative to the Treat All adoption period and the adoption of complementary policies. RESULTS: The 13 countries experienced an average increase in ART linkage of 29.3% over the entire study period. In examining individual countries, all but two showed increases in linkage to treatment immediately after Treat All adoption. Across all countries, those that had adopted four or more complementary policies showed an average increased linkage of 39.8% compared to 13.9% in countries with fewer than four complementary policies. CONCLUSIONS: Eleven of 13 country programs examined in this study demonstrated an increase in ART linkage after Treat-All policy adoption. Increases in linkage were associated with complementary policies. When exploring new public health policies, policymakers may consider which complementary policies might also help achieve the desired outcome of the public health policy.

INTRODUCTION: Nodding Syndrome (NS), an unexplained illness characterized by spells of head bobbing, has been reported in Sudan and Tanzania, perhaps as early as 1962. Hypothesized causes include sorghum consumption, measles, and onchocerciasis infection. In 2009, a couple thousand cases were reportedly in Northern Uganda. METHODS: In December 2009, we identified cases in Kitgum District. The case definition included persons who were previously developmentally normal who had nodding. Cases, further defined as 5- to 15-years-old with an additional neurological deficit, were matched to village controls to assess risk factors and test biological specimens. Logistic regression models were used to evaluate associations. RESULTS: Surveillance identified 224 cases; most (95%) were 5-15-years-old (range = 2-27). Cases were reported in Uganda since 1997. The overall prevalence was 12 cases per 1,000 (range by parish = 0.6-46). The case-control investigation (n = 49 case/village control pairs) showed no association between NS and previously reported measles; sorghum was consumed by most subjects. Positive onchocerciasis serology [age-adjusted odds ratio (AOR1) = 14.4 (2.7, 78.3)], exposure to munitions [AOR1 = 13.9 (1.4, 135.3)], and consumption of crushed roots [AOR1 = 5.4 (1.3, 22.1)] were more likely in cases. Vitamin B6 deficiency was present in the majority of cases (84%) and controls (75%). CONCLUSION: NS appears to be increasing in Uganda since 2000 with 2009 parish prevalence as high as 46 cases per 1,000 5- to 15-year old children. Our results found no supporting evidence for many proposed NS risk factors, revealed association with onchocerciasis, which for the first time was examined with serologic testing, and raised nutritional deficiencies and toxic exposures as possible etiologies.

BACKGROUND: Nodding syndrome is an unexplained illness characterised by head-bobbing spells. The clinical and epidemiological features are incompletely described, and the explanation for the nodding and the underlying cause of nodding syndrome are unknown. We aimed to describe the clinical and neurological diagnostic features of this illness. METHODS: In December, 2009, we did a multifaceted investigation to assess epidemiological and clinical illness features in 13 parishes in Kitgum District, Uganda. We defined a case as a previously healthy child aged 5-15 years with reported nodding and at least one other neurological deficit. Children from a systematic sample of a case-control investigation were enrolled in a clinical case series which included history, physical assessment, and neurological examinations; a subset had electroencephalography (EEG), electromyography, brain MRI, CSF analysis, or a combination of these analyses. We reassessed the available children 8 months later. FINDINGS: We enrolled 23 children (median age 12 years, range 7-15 years) in the case-series investigation, all of whom reported at least daily head nodding. 14 children had reported seizures. Seven (30%) children had gross cognitive impairment, and children with nodding did worse on cognitive tasks than did age-matched controls, with significantly lower scores on tests of short-term recall and attention, semantic fluency and fund of knowledge, and motor praxis. We obtained CSF samples from 16 children, all of which had normal glucose and protein concentrations. EEG of 12 children with nodding syndrome showed disorganised, slow background (n=10), and interictal generalised 2.5-3.0 Hz spike and slow waves (n=10). Two children had nodding episodes during EEG, which showed generalised electrodecrement and paraspinal electromyography dropout consistent with atonic seizures. MRI in four of five children showed generalised cerebral and cerebellar atrophy. Reassessment of 12 children found that six worsened in their clinical condition between the first evaluation and the follow-up evaluation interval, as indicated by more frequent head nodding or seizure episodes, and none had cessation or decrease in frequency of these episodes. INTERPRETATION: Nodding syndrome is an epidemic epilepsy associated with encephalopathy, with head nodding caused by atonic seizures. The natural history, cause, and management of the disorder remain to be determined. FUNDING: Division of Global Disease Detection and Emergency Response, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the use of routine laboratory monitoring in terms of clinical outcomes among patients receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART) in Uganda. DESIGN: Randomised clinical trial SETTING: A home based ART programme in rural Uganda. PARTICIPANTS: All participants were people with HIV who were members of the AIDS Support Organisation. Participants had CD4 cell counts <250 cells x 10(6)/L or World Health Organization stage 3 or 4 disease. INTERVENTIONS: Participants were randomised to one of three different monitoring arms: a viral load arm (clinical monitoring, quarterly CD4 counts, and viral load measurements), CD4 arm (clinical monitoring and CD4 counts), or clinical arm (clinical monitoring alone). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Serious morbidity (newly diagnosed AIDS defining illness) and mortality. RESULTS: 1094 participants started ART; median CD4 count at baseline was 129 cells x 10(6)/L. Median follow-up was three years. In total, 126 participants died (12%), 148 (14%) experienced new AIDS defining illnesses, and 61(6%) experienced virological failure, defined as two consecutive viral loads >500 copies/mL occurring more than three months after the start of ART. After adjustment for age, sex, baseline CD4 count, viral load, and body mass index, the rate of new AIDS defining events or death was higher in the clinical arm than the viral load arm (adjusted hazard ratio 1.83, P=0.002) or the CD4 arm (1.49, P=0.032). There was no significant difference between the CD4 arm and the viral load arm (1.23, P=0.31). CONCLUSION: In patients receiving ART for HIV infection in Uganda, routine laboratory monitoring is associated with improved health and survival compared with clinical monitoring alone. Trial registration Clinical Trials NCT00119093.

BACKGROUND: Up to 20% of people initiating antiretroviral therapy (ART) in sub- Saharan Africa die during the first year of treatment. Understanding the clinical conditions associated with mortality could potentially lead to effective interventions to prevent these deaths. METHODS: We examined data from participants aged ≥18 years in the Home-Based AIDS Care project in Tororo, Uganda, to describe mortality over time and to determine clinical conditions associated with death. Survival analysis was used to examine variables associated with mortality at baseline and during follow-up. RESULTS: A total of 112 (9.4%) deaths occurred in 1,132 subjects (73% women) during a median of 3.0 years of ART. Mortality was 15.9 per 100 person-years (PYR) during the first 3 months and declined to 0.3 per 100 PYR beyond 24 months after ART initiation. Tuberculosis (TB) was the most common condition associated with death (21% of deaths), followed by Candida disease (15%). In 43% of deaths no specific clinical diagnosis was identified. Deaths within 3 months after ART initiation were associated with WHO clinical stage III or IV at baseline, diagnosis of TB at baseline, a diagnosis of a non-TB opportunistic infection (OI) in follow-up and a body mass index (BMI) ≤ 17 kg/m during follow-up. Mortality after 3 months of ART was associated with CD4 cell counts <200 cells/mcL, a diagnosis of TB or other OI, adherence to therapy <95%, and low hemoglobin levels during follow-up. CONCLUSION: Potentially remediable conditions and preventable infections were associated with mortality while receiving ART in Uganda.